Towards a Bibliography of Critical Whiteness Studies

Psychology

Lisa B. Spanierman, Nathan R. Todd and Helen A. Neville

Psychological inquiry seeks to understand and contextualize individual, interpersonal, and group level attitudes and behaviors. Psychological researchers interested in race-related phenomena investigate how broader social processes such as race and racism influence individual self-understanding and behaviors, interactions with others, and group-level interactions. Most psychological research can be applied to real world issues and thus has direct implications for individual and system level change. Though there is not one specific subdiscipline dedicated to the study of whiteness per se, blending empirical knowledge from community, counseling, developmental, personality, and social psychology contributes to an understanding of how whiteness functions as a psychosocial phenomenon that affects both individuals and society. Although the psychological study of whiteness now represents a broad, albeit preliminary, interface with the interdisciplinary critical whiteness literature, early psychological research focused on whites’ racial prejudices toward others, whereas the present psychological research agenda is also concerned with how whites think of themselves as racial beings and the consequences of these conceptualizations on self and others. It is our hope that the work provided below will highlight the insights that the field of psychology can provide to the interdisciplinary literature interrogating whiteness and that these works might inform future conceptual and empirical research concerned with understanding and addressing the phenomenon of whiteness.

The study of racism, prejudice, and discrimination has a rich history in the social psychological literature. With regard to white racism, the main concern has been with the psychological factors and processes that facilitate the expression and perpetuation of prejudice and individual racism. Thus, the references in “White Racism” focus on work either directly related to the perpetration of racism by whites or some of the foundational areas that may have direct relevance to understanding the psychological processes impinging upon dominant group members, such as stereotyping. Of special note should be the emerging literature regarding the psychology of legitimacy — or rather how individuals legitimate being part of a system where inequality exists — which begins to provide a theoretical and empirical basis for understanding the processes and outcomes related to being in the dominant position in an unjust system of racial hierarchy.

One of the central contributions of psychology to the study of whiteness is the theoretical and empirical work on white racial identity — the exploration of the way in which white individuals define themselves as racial beings within a larger hierarchical racial structure. Predominately located in the counseling psychology literature, two distinct approaches to white identity have been developed, as indicated in the section entitled “White Racial Identity Models.” The seminal work of Janet Helms in the late 1980s and early 1990s provided one of the first comprehensive theoretical systems for understanding and measuring white racial identity development. She conceptualizes white identity as a set of related behaviors, attitudes, and affective responses to issues of race and racism, with white individuals embodying one or more of six white racial identity statuses; the model captures variation from internalized racist definitions of whiteness to a critical interrogation of race and the adoption of an anti-racist white identity. Rowe and colleagues reject the idea that race is a central aspect of white individuals’ identity, and they have proposed an alternative model: white racial consciousness. This model was adapted from developmental psychologist Jean Phinney’s groundbreaking work on the stages of ethnic identity and provides insights about individuals’ exploration of and commitment to being white. These two constructs — white racial identity development and white racial consciousness — both have been applied to a broad range of areas in psychology, including multicultural competence training for applied psychology graduate students and mental health practitioners, psychological adjustment, and racial attitudes/behaviors as represented in the citations below. The literature elucidates the controversy that exists regarding the appropriateness of these two theoretical models, and the difficulty in adequately operationalizing each of these constructs.

Recent conceptual writings and empirical research have suggested that Whites experience both positive (i.e., privileges) and negative (i.e., costs) consequences as a result of racism (see “White Privilege and Costs”). White privilege refers to unearned benefits and opportunities to which White individuals have access as a result of their race and that remain inaccessible to racial minorities. The phrase costs of racism to Whites has been defined as negative psychosocial consequences that Whites experience as a result of the existence of racism. For Whites, examples of these costs include guilt and shame, irrational fear of people of other races, distorted beliefs regarding race and racism, and limited exposure to people of different races and cultures. The costs of racism to whites are in no way comparable to the substantial economic, political, and social costs of racism that racial and ethnic minorities face, but are also important to examine.

Another related body of work represented in the references below under the banner of Intergroup Emotions reframes the definition of racism from focusing solely on attitudes to considering the emotional experience or emotional reactions when in the context of thinking or interacting with nongroup members. Developed by Smith and Mackie (1993, 2004), this Intergroup Emotions approach has shown promise in understanding the emotional reactions and processes that may be operating for dominant group members when considering racism or interacting with people of other races and holds promise for better understanding the white experience.

A new area of psychological inquiry, which emerges from the field of education, is the conceptual exploration and empirical examination of the ways in which some White individuals challenge racism. The literature in “White Anti-Racism” reflects personal narratives, where individuals explore their respective journeys toward a critical consciousness about race, as well as investigations employing qualitative research methods to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of White anti-racism as well as examining White individuals who are invested in anti-racist practices.

Last, in “Whiteness and Therapy (and Other Applications),” we highlight the literature that connects psychological research on Whiteness to clinical interventions and multicultural training. Many of these are cross-listed with White identity research, underscoring the linkages between these areas of research, and making them easier to locate.

I. White Racism

Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.

Anastasio, P., Bachman, B., Gaertner, S., & Dovidio, J. (1997). Categorization, recategorization and common ingroup identity. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.) The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 236-256). Blackwell Publishers.

Asante, M. K. (1998). Identifying racist language: Linguistic acts and signs. In M. L. Hecht, (Ed.), Communicating prejudice (pp. 87-98). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Brief, A., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., et al. (2000). Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 81, 72-97.

Burkard, A. W. & Knox, S. (2004). Effect of therapist color-blindness on empathy and attributions in cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 387-397.

Carter, R. T. (1990). The relationship between racism and racial identity among White Americans: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69, 46-50.

Carter, R. T. & Helms, J. E, & Juby, H. L. (2004). The relationship between racism and racial identity for White Americans: A profile analysis. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 32, 2-17.

Clark, K. B. (1955). Prejudice and your child. Boston: Beacon Press.

Cochran, S. P. (1994). Covert prejudicial attitudes of White counselors working with African-American clients. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of North Carolina). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(12-B).

D’Andrea, M. & Daniels, J. (2001). Expanding our thinking about white racism: Facing the challenge of multicultural counseling in the 21st century. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed.) (pp. 289-310). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

D’Andrea, M. & Daniels, J. (1999a). Building on our knowledge of racism, mental health, and mental health practice: A reaction to Thompson and Neville. The Counseling Psychologist, 27, 224-238.

D’Andrea, M. & Daniels, J. (1999b). Exploring the psychology of White racism through naturalistic inquiry. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 93-101.

Daniels, J. A. (2001). Conceptualizing a case of indirect racism using the White Racial Identity Development model. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 256-268.

Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.

Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Beyond the optimal contact strategy: A reality check for the contact hypothesis, American Psychologist, 60, 697-711.

Doosje, B. & Ellemers, N. (1997). Stereotype under threat. The role of group identification. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & A. S. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 257-272). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., & Spears, R. (1995). Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 410-436.

Doosje, B., Spears, R., & Ellemers, N. (2002). Social identity as both cause and effect: The development of group identification in response to anticipated and actual changes in the intergroup status hierarchy. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 57-76.

Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P., & Rudman, L. A. (Eds.). (2005). On the nature of Prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Boston: Blackwell.

Dovidio, J. F., Esses, V. M., Beach, K. R., & Gaertner, S. L. (2003). The role of affect in determining intergroup behavior: The case of willingness to engage in intergroup contact. In D. M. Mackie & E. R. Smith (Eds.) From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups (pp. 153-171). New York: Psychology Press.

Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). Why can’t we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 88-102.

Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Niemann, Y. F., & Snider, K. (2001). Racial, ethnic, and cultural differences in responding to distinctiveness and discrimination on campus: Stigma and common group identity. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 167-188.

Duckitt, J., Wagner, C., Plessis, I., & Birum, I. (2002). The psychological bases of ideology and prejudice: testing a dual process model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 75-93.

Ekehammar, B. & Akrami, N. (2003). The relation between personality and prejudice: A variable-and a person-centered approach. European Journal of Personality, 17, 449-464.

Ekehammar, B., Akrami, N., Gylje, M., & Zakrisson, I. (2004). What matters most to prejudice: Big five personality, social dominance orientation, or right-wing authoritarianism? European Journal of Personality, 18, 463-482.

Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (1997). Sticking together or falling apart: In-group identification as a psychological determinant of group commitment versus individual mobility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 617-626.

Flynn, F. J. (2005). Having an open mind: The impact of openness to experience on interracial attitudes and impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 816-826.

Gaertner, J. F. D. (Ed.). (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. New York: Academic Press.

Glaser, J., Dixit, J., & Green, D. P. (2002). Studying hate crime with the Internet: What makes racists advocate racial violence? Journal of Social Issues, 58, 177-193.

Guimond, S., Dambran, M., Michinov, N., & Duarte, S. (2003). Does social dominance generate prejudice: Integrating individual and contextual determinants of intergroup cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 697-721.

Jones, J. M. & Carter, R. T. (1996). Racism and White racial identity: Merging realities. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on White Americans (2nd ed.), (pp. 1-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Jost, J. T. & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27.

Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25, 881-919.

Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Druglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 339-375.

Jost, J. T. & Major, B. (Eds.). (2001). The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kim, Y. M. (2000). Whites’ explanations of Blacks’ socioeconomic underachievement: Individualism, structuralism, and status inconsistency. Current Research in Social Psychology, 5(8).

Leyens, J. P., Demoulin, S., Desert, M., Vaes, J., & Philippot, P. (2003). Expressing emotions and decoding them: Ingroups and outgroups do not share the same advantages. In D. M. Mackie & E. R. Smith (Eds.) From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups (pp. 135-151). New York: Psychology Press.

Mackie, D. M., Devos, T., & Smith, E. R. (2000). Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 602-616.

Mackie, D. M., Silver, L. A., & Smith, E. R. (2004). Intergroup emotions: Emotion as an intergroup phenomenon. In L. Z. Tiedens & C. W. Leach (Eds.) The social life of emotions (pp. 227-245). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mackie, D. M. & Smith, E. R. (Eds.). (2003). From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. New York: Psychology Press.

Miller, D. A., Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2004). Effects of intergroup contact and political predispositions on prejudice: Role of intergroup emotions. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7, 221-237.

Monteith, M. J., Devine, P. G., & Zuwerink, J. R. (1993). Self-directed versus other-directed affect as a consequence of prejudice-related discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 198-210.

Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Duran, G., Lee, R., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 59-70.

Pfeifer, J. E. & Bernstein, D. J. (2003). Expressions of modern racism in judgments of others: The role of task and target specificity on attributions of guilt. Social Behavior & Personality, 31, 749-766.

Pope-Davis, D. B. & Ottavi, T. M. (1992). The influence of white racial identity attitudes on racism among faculty members: A preliminary examination. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 389-394.

Pope-Davis, D. B. & Ottavi, T. M. (1994). The relationship between racism and racial identity among White Americans: A replication and extension. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 293-297.

Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K. (2001). The role of personality and group factors in explaining prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 427-434.

Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Kappen, D. M. (2003). Attitudes toward group-based inequality: Social dominance or social identity? British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 161-186.

Sidanius, J., Devereux, E., & Pratto, F. (1992). A comparison of symbolic racism theory and social dominance theory as explanations for racial policy attitudes. Journal of Social Psychology, 132, 377-395.

Sidanius, J. & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Smith, E. R. (1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M. Mackie & D. L. Hamilton (Eds.) Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 297-315). New York: Academic Press, Inc.

Spears, R., Doosje, B., & Ellemers, N. (1997). Self-stereotyping in the face of threats to group status and distinctiveness: The role of group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 538-554.

Swim, J. K. & Miller, D. L. (1999). White guilt: Its antecedents and consequences for attitudes toward affirmative action. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 500-514.

Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.) Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 67-85.

Thompson, C. E. & Neville, H. A. (1999). Racism, mental health, and mental health practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 27, 155-223.

Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. New York: Basil Blackwell.

II. White Racial Identity MODELS

Altekruse, M. C. (1994). White racial identity attitudes relationship with the ability to display empathy with African-American clients. (Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(9-B).

Behrens, J. T. (1997). Does the white racial identity attitude scale measure racial identity? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 3-12.

Behrens, J. T. & Rowe, W. (1997). Measuring white racial identity: A reply to Helms (1997). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 3-12.

Block, C. J. & Carter, R. T. (1996). White racial identity attitude theories: A rose by any other name is still a rose. The Counseling Psychologist, 24, 326-334.

Brazaitis, S. J. (1998). White racial identity attitudes as moderators of self-silencing in White women. (Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(9-B).

Burkard, A. W., Juarez-Huffaker, M., & Ajmere, K. (2003). White racial identity attitudes as a predictor of client perceptions of cross-cultural working alliances. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 31, 226-244.

Burkard, A. W., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Alfonso, V. C. (1999). White counselor trainees’ racial identity and working alliance perceptions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 324-329.

Butryn, T. M. (2002). Critically examining White racial identity and privilege in sport psychology consulting. Sport Psychologist, 16, 316-336.

Carter, R. T. (1990). The relationship between racism and racial identity among White Americans: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69, 46-50.

————. (1995). The influence of race and racial identity in psychotherapy: Toward a racially inclusive model. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

————. (1996). Exploring the complexity of racial identity attitude measures. In G. R. Sodowsky & J. Impara (Eds.), Multicultural assessment in counseling and clinical psychology (pp. 193-223). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

Carter, R. T., Gushue, G. V., & Weitzman, L. M. (1994). White racial identity development and work values. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 185-197.

Carter, R. T., Helms, J. E., & Juby, H. L. (2004). The Relationship between Racism and Racial Identity for White Americans: A Profile Analysis. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 32, 2-17.

Choney, S. B. & Behrens, J. T. (1996). Development of the Oklahoma Racial Attitudes Scale- Preliminary Form (ORAS-P). In G. R. Sodowsky & J. Impara (Eds.), Multicultural assessment in counseling and clinical psychology (pp. 225-240). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

Choney, S. K. & Rowe, W. (1994). Assessing White racial identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 102-104.

Cohen, E. A. (2001). The relationships among personality factors, gender, White racial consciousness types, and birth order. (Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(2-B).

Constantine, M. G. (2002). Racism attitudes, White racial identity attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence in school counselor trainees. Counselor Education & Supervision, 41, 162-174.

Corbett, M. M. (1995). The relationship between White racial identity and narcissism. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(4-B).

Daniel, G. (1996). Black and White identity in the new millennium: Unsevering the ties that bind. In M. Root (Ed), The multiracial experience: Racial borders as the new frontier (pp.121-139). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Daniels, J. A. (2001). Conceptualizing a case of indirect racism using the White Racial Identity Development model. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 256-268.

Gingerich, K. E. (1999). The impact of study abroad and didactic cross-cultural coursework experiences on the development of white racial consciousness and cultural sensitivity. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kansas). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(2-A).

Goodstein, R. & Ponterotto, J. G. (1997). Racial and ethnic identity: Their relationship and their contribution to self-esteem. Journal of Black Psychology, 23, 275-292.

Gushue, G. V. & Carter, R. T. (2000). Remembering race: White racial identity attitudes and two aspects of social memory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 199-210.

Hamarneh, M. E. (1996). The impact of racial identity training on anti-black attitudes of white counselors-in-training. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Florida). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(2-B).

Hardiman, R. (1982). White identity development: A process oriented model for describing the racial consciousness of White Americans. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Massachusetts). Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(1-A).

————. (2001). Reflections on White Identity Development Theory. In C. L. Wijeyesinghe & B. W. Jackson III (Eds.), New perspectives on racial identity development: A theoretical and practical anthology (pp. 108-128). New York: New York University Press.

Hauser, S. T. (1972). Black and white identity development: Aspects and perspectives. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 1, 113-130.

Helms, J. E. (1999). Another meta-analysis of the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale’s Cronbach alphas: Implications for validity. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development, 32, 122-137.

————. (1997). Implications of Behrens (1997) for the validity of the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 13-16.

————. (1996). Toward a methodology for measuring and assessing racial as distinguished from ethnic identity. In G. R. Sodowsky & J. Impara (Eds.), Multicultural assessment in counseling and clinical psychology (pp. 143-192). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

————. (1995). An update of Helm’s white and people of color racial identity models. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (pp. 181-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

————. (1993). I also said “White racial identity influences White researchers.” The Counseling Psychologist, 21, 240-243.

————. (1992). A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white persons in your life. Kansas: Content Communications.

————. (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

————. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: a Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153-165.

Helms, J. E. & Carter, R. T. (1990). Development of the White Racial Identity Attitude Inventory. In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 67-80). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

————. (1991). Relationships of white and black racial identity attitudes and demographic similarity to counselor preferences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 446-457.

Knowles, E. D. & Peng, K. (2005). White selves: Conceptualizing and measuring a dominant-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 223-241.

Kwan, K. K. (2001). Counseling applications of racial and ethnic identity models: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 185-191.

LaFleur, N. K., Leach, M.M., & Rowe, W. (2002). Manual: Oklahoma Racial Attitudes Scale.

LaFleur, N. K., Rowe, W., & Leach, M. M. (2002). Reconceptualizing White racial consciousness. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 30, 148-152.

Leach, M. M., Behrens, J. T., & LaFleur, N. (2002). White racial identity and white racial consciousness: Similarities, differences, and recommendations. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 30, 66-80.

Mercer, S. H. & Cunningham, M. (2003). Racial identity in White American college students: Issues of conceptualization and measurement. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 217-230.

Mitchell, A. A. (1998). A methodological examination of White Racial consciousness and attitudes toward women, people who are deaf, gay men and lesbians. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(9-A).

Mueller, J. A. & Pope, R. L. (2001). The relationship between multicultural competence and White racial consciousness among student affairs practitioners. Journal of College Student Development, 42, 133-144.

Neville, H. A., Heppner, M. J., Louie, C. E., Thompson, C. E., Brooks, L., & Baker, C. E. (1996). The impact of multicultural training on white racial identity attitudes and therapy competencies. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 27, 83-89.

Ochs, N. G. (1993). Racial issues in White dyads: An investigation of Helms’ interaction model. (Doctoral Dissertation, College of William and Mary). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(11-A).

O’Donoghue, M. H. (2001). White mothers of biracial, Black-White adolescents: Negotiating the borders of racial identity, culture and ethnicity. (Doctoral Dissertation, New York University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(7-A).

Ottavi, T. M., Pope-Davis, D. B., & Dings, J. G. (1994). Relationship between white racial identity attitudes and self-reported multicultural counseling competencies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 149-154.

Pack-Brown, S. P. (1999). Racism and White counselor training: Influence of White racial identity theory and research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 87-92.

Parker, W. A., Moore, M. A., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1998). Altering White racial identity and interracial comfort through multicultural training. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 302-310.

Perez, J. A. (1998). The influence of White racial consciousness and degree of racism on preferences for racially similar counselors. (Doctoral Dissertation, Washington State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(6-B).

Ponterotto, J. G. (1988). Racial consciousness development among white counselor trainees: A stage model. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 146-156.

Ponterotto, J. G., Sabnani, H. B., & Borodovsky, L. G. (1992). White racial identity attitude research: A rejoinder. The Counseling Psychologist, 20, 191-193.

Ponterotto, J. G., Utsey, S. O., & Pederson, P. B. (2006). Preventing prejudice: A guide for counselors and educators (2nd ed.; pp. 88 – 108). Newbury Park , CA: Sage.

Pope-Davis D. B., Menefee, L. A., & Ottavi, T. M. (1993). The comparison of white racial identity attitudes among faculty and students: Implications for professional psychologists. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 24, 443-449.

Pope-Davis, D. B. & Ottavi, T. M. (1994). The relationship between racism and racial identity among White Americans: A replication and extension. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 293-297.

Pope-Davis, D. B., Vandiver, B. J., & Stone, G. L. (1999). White racial identity attitude development: A psychometric examination of two instruments. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 70-79.

Regan, A. M. & Huber, J. S. (1997). Facilitating White identity development: A therapeutic group intervention. In C. E. Thompson and R. T. Carter (Eds.), Racial identity theory: Applications to individual, group, and organizational interventions,(pp. 113-126). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Richardson, T. Q. & Silvestri, T. J. (1999). White identity formation: A developmental process. In R. H. Sheets & E. R. Hollins (Eds.), Racial and ethnic identity in school practices: Aspects of human development (pp. 49-65).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Roediger, D. R. (1999). Is there a healthy white personality? The Counseling Psychologist, 27, 239-244.

Rowe, W., Behrens, J. T., & Leach, M. M. (1995). Racial/ethnic identity and racial consciousness: Looking back and looking forward. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed.) (pp. 218-235). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Rowe, W., Bennett, S K., & Atkinson, D. R. (1994). White racial identity models: A critique and alternative proposal. The Counseling Psychologist, 22, 129-146.

Rowe, W. & Hill, T. L. (1992). On carts and horses: The status of white racial identity attitude research. The Counseling Psychologist, 20, 189-190.

Sabnani, H. B., Ponterotto, J. G., & Borodovsky, L. G. (1991). White racial identity development and cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. The Counseling Psychologist, 19, 76-102.

Scott, D. A. & Robinson, T. L. (2001). White male identity development: The Key model. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79, 415-421.

Silvestri, T. J. & Richardson, T. Q. (2001). White racial identity statuses and NEO personality constructs: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79, 68-76.

Steward, R. J., Boatwright, K. J., Sauer, E., Baden, A., & Jackson, J. D. (1998). The relationships among counselor-trainees’ gender, cognitive development, and white racial identity: implications for counselor training. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 26, 254-272.

Stoddart, K. (2002). Researching White Racial Identity. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 1254-1264.

Stovall, C. D. (1991). Development of a measure of White counselor racial attitudes toward Black male client characteristics: The Counselor Situational Attitude Scale (CSAS). (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(2-B).

Sue, D. W. & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.) (pp. 93-117). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Summerson, M. T. (1997). White racial consciousness and preference for counselor ethnicity in White undergraduate students. (Doctoral Dissertation, Washington State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(11-B).

Thompson, C. E. (1994). Helms’ white racial identity development (WRID) theory: Another look. The Counseling Psychologist, 22, 645-649.

Thompson, C. E., & Carter, R. T. (Eds.). (1997). Racial identity theory: Applications to individual, group, and organizational interventions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Tokar, D. M. & Swanson, J. L. (1991). An investigation of the validity of Helms’ (1984) model of white racial identity development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 296-301.

Utsey, S. O. & Gernat, C. A. (2002). White racial identity attitudes and the ego defense mechanisms used by white counselor trainees in racially provocative counseling situations. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80, 475-483.

Vinson, T. S. & Neimeyer, G. J. (2003). The relationship between racial identity development and multicultural counseling competency: A second look. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 31, 262-277.

III. White Privilege and Costs

Ancis, J. R. & Szymanski, D. M. (2001). Awareness of White privilege among White counseling trainees. The Counseling Psychologist, 29, 548-569.

Arminio, J. (2001). Exploring the nature of race-related guilt. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 29, 239-252.

Banaszynski, T. L. (2001). Beliefs about the existence of White privilege, race attitudes, and diversity-related behavior. (Doctoral Dissertation, Yale University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(10-B).

Baumeister, R. F. & Hastings, S. (1997). Distortions of collective memory: How groups flatter and deceive themselves, in J. W. Pennebaker, D. Paez, & B. Rime (Eds.) Collective memory of political events: Social psychological perspectives, (pp. 277-293). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 243-267.

Bowser, B. P. & Hunt, R. G. (Eds.). (1996). Impacts of racism on White Americans (2nd ed.) (1996). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

————. (Eds.). (1981). Impacts of racism on White Americans. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Branscombe, N. R. (1998). Thinking about one’s gender group’s privileges or disadvantages: Consequences for well-being in women and men. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 167-184.

Branscombe, N. R. & Doosje, B. (2004). International perspectives on the experience of collective guilt. In N. R. Branscombe and B. Doosje (Eds.) Collective Guilt: International Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

Branscombe, N. R., Doosje, B., & McGarty, C. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of collective guilt. In D. M. Mackie & E. R. Smith (Eds.) From Prejudice to Intergroup Emotions: Differentiated Reactions to Social Groups (pp. 49-66). New York: Psychology Press.

Branscombe, N. R. & Miron, A. M. (2004). Interpreting the ingroup’s negative actions toward another group: Emotional reactions to appraised harm. In L. Z. Tiedens & C. W. Leach (Eds.) The Social Life of Emotions, (pp. 314-335). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Branscombe, N. R., Slugoski, B., & Kappen, D. M. (2004). The measurement of collective guilt: What it is and what it is not. In N. R. Branscombe and B. Doosje (Eds.) Collective Guilt: International Perspectives (pp. 16-34).Cambridge University Press.

Branscombe, N. R. & Wann, D. L. (1994). Collective self-esteem consequences of outgroup derogation when a valued social identity is on trial. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 641-657.

Branscombe, N. R., Wann, D. L, Noel, J. G., & Coleman, J. (1993). In-group or out-group extremity: Importance of the threatened social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 381-388.

Butler, E. M. (2003). The in/visible race in multicultural psychology literature: A recognition of whiteness and power. (Doctoral Dissertation, The Wright Institute). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64(3-B).

Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blain, B., & Broadnzx, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychology well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503-513.

Devos, T. & Banaji M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447-466.

Dolan-Del Vecchio, K. (1998). Dismantling White male privilege within family therapy. In M. McGoldrick (Ed.), Re-visioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice, (pp. 159-175). Guilford Press.

Doosje, B., Branscombe, N. R., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1998). Guilt by association: When one’s group has a negative history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 872-886.

Elder, T. J., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2005). Keeping it to ourselves: Effects of audience size and composition on reactions to criticisms of the ingroup. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8, 231-244.

Guthrie, R. V. (2003). Even the Rat was White: A Historical View of Psychology (2nd ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

Helms, J. E. (1992). Why is there no study of cultural equivalence in standardized cognitive ability testing? American Psychologist, 47, 1083-1101.

Iyer, A., Leach, C. W., & Crosby, F. J. (2003). White guilt and racial compensation: The benefits and limits of self-focus. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 117-129.

Karp, J. B. (1981). The emotional impact and a model for changing racist attitudes. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on white Americans (pp. 87-96). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Lawrence, S. M. & Bunche, T. (1996). Feeling and dealing: Teaching White students about racial privilege. Scandinavian Audiology Supplementum, 25, 531-542.

Manuppelli, L. (2001). Exploring the therapist’s understanding of White privilege: A phenomenological analysis of focus group discussions with culturally diverse therapists. (Doctoral Dissertation, St. Mary’s University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(7-B).

Miron, A. M., Branscombe, N. R., & Schmitt, M. T. (2006). Collective guilt as distress over illegitimate intergroup inequality. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 9, 163-180.

Neville, H. A., Worthington, R. L., & Spanierman, L. B. (2001). Race, power, and multicultural counseling psychology: Understanding white privilege and color-blind racial attitudes. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed.) (pp. 257-288). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Perry, P. (2001). White means never having to say you’re ethnic: White youth and the construction of “Cultureless” identities. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30, 56-91.

Pettigrew, T. F. (1981). The mental health impact. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on white Americans (pp. 97-118). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Powell, A. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Schmitt, M. T. (2005). Inequality as ingroup privilege or outgroup disadvantage: The impact of group focus on collective guilt and interracial attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 508-521.

Spanierman, L. B. & Heppner, M. J. (2004). The Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites Scale (PCRW): Construction and Initial Validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 249-262.

Spanierman, L. B., Poteat, V. P., Beer, A. M., & Armstrong, P. I. (2006). Psychosocial costs of racism to Whites: Exploring patterns with cluster analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 434-441.

Steele, S. (1990). The Content of our Character: A New Vision of Race in America (pp. 77-92: White Guilt). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Steele, S. (2006). White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era. New York: Harper Collins.

Swim, J. K. & Miller, D. L. (1999). White guilt: Its antecedents and consequences for attitudes toward affirmative action. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 500-514.

Terry, R. W. (1981). The negative impact on White values. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on white Americans
(pp. 119-151). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Thandeka. (2002). Learning to be White: Money, Race, and God in America. New York: Continuum.

IV. White Anti-Racism

Arriola, K. R., Jacob, C., & Elizabeth R. (2001). Framing the affirmative-action debate: Attitudes toward out-group members and White identity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 2462-2483.

Burton, M. E. (1998). White exploiters or White allies: Perspectives from some prominent multicultural psychologists/theorists. (Doctoral Dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(6-B).

Corvin, S. A. & Wiggins, F. (1989). An antiracism training model for White professionals. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 17, 105-114.

Croteau, J. M. (1999). One struggle through individualism: Toward an antiracist White racial identity. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 30-32.

Crowfoot, J. E. & Chesler, M. A. (1996). White men’s roles in multicultural coalitions. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on white Americans (2nd ed.) (pp. 202-229). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

D’Andrea, M. (1999). The evolution and transformation of a White racist: A personal narrative. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 38-42.

Giroux, H. A. (1997). Rewriting the discourse of racial identity: towards a pedagogy and politics of whiteness. Harvard Educational Review, 67, 285-320.

Kiselica, M. S. (1999). Confronting my own ethnocentrism and racism: A process of pain and growth. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 14-17.

————. (1998). Preparing Anglos for the challenges and joys of multiculturalism. The Counseling Psychologist, 26, 5-21.

Kiselica, M. S., Maben, P., & Locke, D. C. (1999). Do multicultural education and diversity appreciation training reduce prejudice among counseling trainees? Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 21, 240-254.

Kivel, P. (1996). Uprooting racism: How white people can work for racial justice. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.

Ponterotto, J. G., Utsey, S. O., & Pederson, P. B. (2006). Preventing prejudice: A guide for counselors and educators (2nd ed.). Newbury Park , CA: Sage.

Sue, D. W. (2003). Overcoming our racism: The journey to liberation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Tatum, B. D. (1994). Teaching White students about racism: The search for White allies and the restoration of hope. Teachers College Record, 95, 462-476.

Treitel, E. N. (2000). Anti-racist practice by White psychologists. (Doctoral Dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(5-B).

Webster, C. B. (1995). Antiracism training through the exploration of White racial identity. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Georgia). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(9-A).

V. Whiteness and Therapy (and Other Applications)

Alcoff, L. M. (1998). What should White people do? Hypatia, 13, 6-26.

Ancis, J. R. & Szymanski, D. M. (2001). Awareness of White privilege among White counseling trainees. The Counseling Psychologist, 29, 548-569.

Burkard, A. W. & Knox, S. (2004). Effect of therapist color-blindness on empathy and attributions in cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 387-397.

Carter, R. T. (1995). The influence of race and racial identity in psychotherapy: Toward a racially inclusive model. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Constantine, M. G. (2002). Racism attitudes, White racial identity attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence in school counselor trainees. Counselor Education & Supervision, 41, 162-174.

Constantine, M. G., Warren, A. K., & Miville, M. L. (2005). White racial identity dyadic interactions: Implications for supervisees’ multicultural counseling competence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 490-496.

Fine, M., Weis, L., Powell, L. C., & Wong, L. M. (Eds.). (1997). Off white: Readings on race, power, and society. New York: Routledge.

Fuertes, J. N. Mueller, L. N., Chauhan, R. V., Walker, J. A., & Ladany, N. (2002). An investigation of European American therapists’ approach to counseling African American clients. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 763-788.

Helms, J. E. (1993). I also said “White racial identity influences White researchers.” The Counseling Psychologist, 21, 240-243.

Helms, J. E. & Carter, R. T. (1991). Relationships of white and black racial identity attitudes and demographic similarity to counselor preferences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 446-457.

Kushner, J. L. (1999). Charting an unfamiliar path. Black and White supervisors talk about multicultural supervision: An exploratory qualitative interview study. (Doctoral Dissertation, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(4-B).

Kwan, K. K. (2001). Counseling applications of racial and ethnic identity models: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 185-191.

Menapace, B. R. (1998). Correlates of effectiveness for White psychotherapists working with African American clients: Multicultural competence, clinical experience, racial consciousness, multicultural training, and social experience. (Doctoral Dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(9-B).

Miville, M. L., Darlington, P., Whitlock, B., & Mulligan, T. (2005). Integrating identities: The relationships of racial, gender, and ego identities among White college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 157-175.

Pack-Brown, S. P. (1999). Racism and White counselor training: Influence of White racial identity theory and research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 87-92.

Parker, W. A., Moore, M. A., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1998). Altering White racial identity and interracial comfort through multicultural training. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 302-310.

Pinderhughes, E. (1989). Understanding race, ethnicity, and power: The key to efficacy in clinical practice. New York: The Free Press.

Ponterotto, J. G. (1988). Racial consciousness development among white counselor trainees: A stage model. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 146-156.

Richardson, T. Q. & Molinaro, K. L. (1996). White counselor self-awareness: A prerequisite for multicultural competence. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 238-242.

Sabnani, H. B., Ponterotto, J. G., & Borodovsky, L. G. (1991). White racial identity development and cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. The Counseling Psychologist, 19, 76-102.

Sue, D. W. & Sue, D. S. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Utsey, S. O., Hammar, L., & Gernat, C. A. (2005). Examining the reactions of White, Black, and Latino/a counseling psychologists to a study of racial issues in counseling and supervision dyads. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 565 - 573.

Wang, Y. W., Davidson, M. M., Yakushko, Ok F., Savoy, H. B., Tan, J. A., & Bleier, J. K. (2003). The scale of ethnocultural empathy: Development, validation, and reliability. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 221-234.